By Dante Moroni (Originally presented May 2015 at University of Minnesota Duluth.)

Albert BB, Derraik JGB, Cameron-Smith D, Hofman PL, Tumanov S, Villas-Boas SG, Garg ML, Cutfield WS. 2015. Fish oil supplements in New Zealand are highly oxidized and do not meet label content of n-3 PUFA. Scientific Reports 5 (7928).  DOI:10.1038/srep07928

This experimental study reviews contents of commercial fish oil supplements in New Zealand, however, the results are significant for other places such as the UK and US. Fish oil supplements analyzed in the paper often had oxidation levels much high than international guidelines. Also, the supplements had levels of omega-3s that were consistently lower than the level stated on their labels. This paper may result in people having to take more of their fish oil capsules, more strict regulatory guidelines for supplement producers, and also swaying the public to eat fish instead of taking oil capsules.

Allport S. The queen of fats, why omega-3s were removed from the western diet and what we can do to replace them. University of CA press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA. 2006. Pgs: 4, 6, 11, 42, 115, 128.

The book was a great source of background information for my topic. It dealt with the science history of omega-3s, and illuminated how recent their discovery really is. The chemistry of omega-3s and their relation to omega-6s was explained in depth. Along with the bio mechanism behind their health benefits. The book concluded with ways to get omega-3s into your diet. The pages listed were the only ones I used in my power point presentation. Before reading the book I wasn’t as knowledgeable on the subject matter but it provided a ton of information which was extremely useful. Several of the sources which Susan cited were related to those papers I was already doing research on which made it even more relevant.

Apt KE, Behrens PW. 1999. Commercial developments in microalgal biotechnology. J Phycol. 35: 215-226.

The Source was used for examples of algal species used in commercial DHA supplements, aquaculture, and enrichment of livestock/eggs. It was good to learn that one major obstacle in algal supplement is that they do not have significant levels of EPA, it’s all DHA. That’s why using algal oils for infant formula may be the best option due to babies need for high levels of DHA, used in brain and vision development. Algal densities in photobioreactors don’t get very high and mass production is still not economically viable.

Betancor MB, Sprague M, Usher S, Sayanova O, Campbell PJ, Napier JA, Tocher DR. 2014. A nutritionally-enhanced oil from transgenic Camelina sativa effectively replaces fish oil as a source of eicosapentaenoic acid for fish. Scientific Reports. 5 (8104).  DOI:10.1038/srep08104

The article provides evidence for the efficacy of bioengineering plants (Camelina sativa) to produce more omega-3 fatty acids, particularly eicosapentaenoic acid. This plants may have their seed oils extracted and included in formulated fish feeds. The paper also tests the difference between feeding fish these transgenic oil feeds versus natural fish oil feeds. It provides an example of a sustainable alternative to exploiting natural fisheries. The source is from Scientific Reports which is an open access journal from the publishers of Nature.

Burdge GC, Calder PC. 2005. Conversion of α-linolenic acid to longer-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human adults. J Reprod Nutr Dev. 45: 581-597.

The science behind the conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA in the body were explained in this review paper. It revealed how only about ten percent of ALA consumed gets converted to EPA, and an insignificant amount from that goes to DHA. It provided a nice figure which I used in my power point presentation. Also, the review described how omega-3s and omega-6s fight for the delta six desaturase enzyme in the body and how important that is. This paper was one of the most helpful of my sources.

Harriss WS, Pottala JV, Sands SA, Jones PG. 2007. Comparison of the effects of fish and fish-oil capsules on the n-3 fatty acid content of blood cells and plasma phospholipids. Am J Clin Nutr. 86: 1621-1625.

The authors conducted an experiment in order to see if there was a significant difference in bioavailability between taking fish-oil supplements or eating fatty fish. Volunteers either took fish oil every day or ate fish twice a week. Composition of blood cell membranes and plasma phospholipids were analyzed in order to see how much omega-3 was incorporated into them. Their conclusion was that there is no significant difference between taking fish-oil supplements when compared to eating fish. However, fish contain trace minerals, protein, and other nutritionally important parts that may give a great benefit than just taking fish-oil supplements.

Kris-Etherton PM, Hill AM. 2008. N-3 fatty acids: food or supplements?. J Am Dietetic Assoc. 108: (7) 1125-1130.

A good summary of the current guidelines and recommendations for consumption of EPA and DHA were provide in this commentary. Coming from the American dietetic association, the information is credible. Differences between fish, fish-oil, and algal-oil were addressed. Also, ways for vegan and vegetarians to get their omega-3s were analyzed. Commentary was a good summary of things I had mostly learned so far, but again the dietary recommendations were the most helpful.

Nichols PD, Petrie J, Singh S. 2010. Long-chain omega-3 oils – an update on sustainable sources. J Nutrients. 2: 572-585.

This review paper summarized the sustainability aspect of omega-3s. It explained how there isn’t enough supply to meet the demands of consumers without destroying the health of natural fisheries. Its most important information was examples of transgenic seed crops that may be used as feed for aquaculture. I had already read the paper on Camelina sativa, but this review provided a few more examples. Also, a bit more information on algal oil was given.

Simopoulos AP. 2002. The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. J Biomed Pharmacother. 56 (2002) 365-379.

This paper gives an overview of why modern day western diets have such a high ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids compared to our prehistoric ancestors. Ideas behind why it has become so skewed are provided through nutritional comparisons and analysis of commercial food products. The paper also goes into the biomechanics of what polyunsaturated fatty acids are and how they may contribute in either promoting or reducing the risk of several chronic diseases. Also, some clinical intervention studies which applied reduced 6 to 3 ratios are included and the results from them are given.

Stoll AL, Severus E, Freeman MP, Rueter S, Zboyan HA, Diamond E, Cress KK, Marangell LB. 1999. Omega 3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder a preliminary double-blind placebo-controlled trial. J Gen Psych. 56: 407-412

The source was used as another example of a potential use for omega-3s. In their 4 month trial, the researchers found that patients generally had improved symptoms. Though, omega-3s on their own likely won’t be used as a treatment for bipolar disorder, they may be used in conjunction with mood-stabilizing medicine to increase quality of life for patients. The amount of fatty acids (9.6g/day) is an absurd amount compared to the recommended minimum daily intake (.5g/day). I think the study still hold some weight, even though the dose was very high.

Su KP, Huang SY, Chiu CC, Shen WW. 2003. Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder a preliminary double-blind placebo-controlled trial. J European Neuropsych. 13: 267-271

The study wanted to see whether omega-3s could help patients with depression. It is known that there is a correlation between depressed individuals and the amount of omega-3s in their tissues. Results show that symptoms were significantly improved, however omega-3s alone aren’t advised to treat depression. Alongside anti-depressants they may increase the chances of overcoming the disorder.

Betancor MB, Sprague M, Usher S, Sayanova O, Campbell PJ, Napier JA, Tocher DR. 2014. A nutritionally-enhanced oil from transgenic Camelina sativa effectively replaces fish oil as a source of eicosapentaenoic acid for fish. Scientific Reports 5 (8104). DOI:10.1038/srep08104

1. What observation or idea led to the research? (abstract and introduction)
   Global demand for omega-3 poly-unsaturated fatty acids (n3-PUFA) exceeds the supply from natural fisheries. Novel sources of omega-3s need to be found in order to increase supply. Terrestrial oilseed crops do not produce EPA or DHA, however through bio-engineering, they may be a vital new sustainable source of omega-3s in fish feed.
2. What question(s) are being addressed? (title)
   Do the PUFAs produced from bioengineered Camelina sativa provide a viable fish feed alternative when compared to fish oil?
3. What is (are) the hypothesis? (abstract and introduction)
   The eicosapentaenoic acid produced from transgenic Camelina sativa provides a viable alternative to fish oil and may be a solution to the overexploitation of natural fisheries.
4. What experiments, measurements, and observations were done?
   The transgenic seeds contained an amount of EPA comparable to fish oil. “Triplicate groups of salmon were fed one of three experimental diets containing fish oil (FO), wild-type Camelina oil (WCO), or EPA-Camelina oil (ECO) as the sole added lipid source for 7-weeks.” WCO and ECO feeds were supplemented with fish meal to give them a level of 2.5% DHA necessary for fish growth.
5. What results are actually presented? (figures)
   Total omega-3 content in the adult fish flesh was 29.3% for the FO diet, 23.8% for the ECO diet, and 12.6% for the WCO diet. The WCO and ECO diets had more than twice as much omega-6 than the FO diet.
6. Describe analysis and/or modeling if any was done
   They spent some time doing microarray analysis of liver transcriptomes to see if there was a difference in gene expression between the diets, though I don’t think I’m going to touch of this aspect in my seminar as it’s too in depth.
7. What are the main discussion points, conclusions, and implications? (data and observations)
   Fish fed the ECO diet developed comparably well to fish fed the FO diet. Human consumption of farmed fish fed an ECO diet would provide equall health benefits to those fed a FO diet. This may be a necessary implementation in keeping up with global omega-3 demand without collapsing natural fisheries.
8. Jot down questions you have about what’s going on in this paper. (terminology, etc.)
   DHA levels were still much higher in the FO fish than ECO fish, and this may be an area of concern as humans need both EPA and DHA. Also, the higher levels of omega-6 in both ECO and WCO may be counteractive to an increased omega-3 content. I need to do more research on the biosynthesis pathways involved in converting ALA -> EPA -> DPA -> DHA, and that may help explain the differences in PUFA composition in the fishes.

Albert BB, Derraik JGB, Cameron-Smith D, Hofman PL, Tumanov S, Villas-Boas SG, Garg ML, Cutfield WS. 2015. Fish oil supplements in New Zealand are highly oxidized and do not meet label content of n-3 PUFA. Scientific Reports 5 (7928). DOI:10.1038/srep07928

1. What observation or idea led to the research? (abstract and introduction)
   Fish oil is one of the most commonly consumed supplements. Though, it is prone to oxidation which lowers the amount of omega-3s that are bioavailable. The researchers wanted to conduct a comprehensive review of Fish oil supplements available in New Zealand to see how oxidized they were and if they actually contained the amount of PUFA the label had listed.
2. What question(s) are being addressed? (title)
   Do fish oil supplements have as much PUFA as stated on their labels? Also, since PUFAs are prone to oxidation, what level of oxidation was found in those supplements? How do these results compare to similar studies in other parts of the world?
3. What is (are) the hypothesis? (abstract and introduction)
   Fish oil supplements found in New Zealand store shelves may not meet their labeled omega-3 content and also may have excessive levels of oxidation.
4. What experiments, measurements, and observations were done?
   Analysis of 32 brands of supplements was completed. The experimenters examined them for PV (peroxide value), AV (aniside value), and Totox (total oxidation) as oxidation markers. They also examined the supplements’ omega-3 PUFA content and compared this to the level listed on the label.
5. What results are actually presented? (figures)
   Supplements had on average, 68% of their labeled omega-3 content. Only three had greater than or equal to their labeled value, while two-thirds of the supplements had less than 67% of the listed value. Oxidation was high in all but 3 brands of supplements, with 83% having excessive PV, 25% having excessive AV, and 50% having excessive Totox values. Though, 19% met recommended limits when concentration was factored in. Also, the “best before date” did not correlate with oxidation.
6. Describe analysis and/or modeling if any was done
   Figure 1 is a nice looking graph showing the low levels of omega-3s in supplements. Figure 2 shows the oxidation levels in the supplements.
7. What are the main discussion points, conclusions, and implications? (data and observations)
   The study reveals how unreliable fish oil supplements may be. The study agrees with several other studies that had the same concept, while some had even greater oxidation and lower PUFA levels. These results from New Zealand can be applied internationally, as guidelines for countries such as the US. It may be better to stick to eating fish instead of supplements, due to their propensity to oxidize.
8. Jot down questions you have about what’s going on in this paper. (terminology, etc.)
   What’s the difference between primary and secondary oxidation? Aren’t there regulations in place that make this type of labeling illegal if not fraudulent?

Simopoulos AP. 2002. The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. J Biomed Pharmacother. 56 (2002) 365-379.

1. What observation or idea led to the research? (abstract and introduction)
   The ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 in the typical western diet ranges from about 15-17/1. This is much higher than that of our prehistoric ancestors whose ratios were about 1-2/1. Our genetic makeup has not evolved for this nutritional profile which may explain its relation to inflammatory diseases. Evidence has shown that having a lower ratio may reduce the risk of several inflammatory diseases that plague modern society including cardiovascular disease, arthritis, certain cancers, and asthma.
2. What question(s) are being addressed? (title)
   What are the driving forces behind the large shift in omega-3 reduction and omega-6 increases in western diets? What are the biological functions of these essential fatty acids in our bodies and why does the ratio matter? Also, how effective is treatment of inflammatory diseases with a low ratio diet?
3. What is (are) the hypothesis? (abstract and introduction)
   • Modern agriculture has led to a boom of omega-6 PUFAs available to consumers while the amount of omega-3s consumed by modern societies has declined substantially. This substantially increased ratio of 6/3 in western diets is in stark contrast to our ancestors and we are not evolved to retain optimal health through such a diet.
   • Having a lower ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 EFAs in your diet is important and may act as a preventative measure along with reducing risk of mortality from previously established diseases.
4. What experiments, measurements, and observations were done?
   The paper brings together anthropological data from many sources to show evidence for a changed ratio of EFA in modern diets. Also, the paper theorizes why there has been such an increase in omega-6 PUFAs and a sharp decline in omega-3 consumption. A compilation of results from several clinical intervention studies that gave patients a lowered 6/3 ratio and the results obtained from those experiments are presented in the paper.
5. What results are actually presented? (figures)
   • Nutritional data describing the difference in food products contributing to the skewed ratio (tables. 7,8)
   • Anthropological data comparing the diets of our ancestors to that of the present (table. 1)
   • Results from experiment evaluating the efficacy of treatment with a lowered ratio diet
6. Describe analysis and/or modeling if any was done
7. What are the main discussion points, conclusions, and implications? (data and observations)

Several factors have contributed in elevated levels of omega-6 and decreased omega-3 found commonly in western diets. Chronic diseases are associated with high omega-6 intake due to production of several biological factors, while omega-3 intake is associated with their suppression. An appropriate ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 may be an important aspect of good health and further studies on its importance are needed.

8. Jot down questions you have about what’s going on in this paper. (terminology, etc.)
   I don’t quite understand the biomechanics behind the inflammatory component that are produced by omega-6 EFAs, though I plan on researching them further. I want to gain further understanding of how omega-6 competes with omega-3 in the body and how they relate to each other.